1.
Religion of great Mongol Empire
The most interesting period in the
religious attitudes of the Mongols was the period when Chinggis Khaan founded
the Great Mongol Empire. Chinggis Khaan and his successors idolized shamanism
and holy spirits. The shamans, who worshipped the Eternal Blue Sky, were never
banned by other religious denominations.
Kharakhorum,
the capital of the greatest cultural,
religious and political centers of its time in the world. Buddhists,
Christians, Nestorians, Muslims and Confucians co-exited by setting up their
own temples and monasteries. History tells as that the monasteries and temples
had their own governing centers and head authorities.
In
Kharakhorum, along whit shamanism, there was a Buddhist lamasery, two mosques,
one Christian church and 12 temples of other religions. Beginning with the
Great Bogd Chinggis, the Mongolian Khaans and nobles never discriminated
against the religious denominations of conquered nations and let them co-exist
on an equal footing.
Khubilai
Khaan celebrated the holy festivals of various religions. The history of the
Yuan dynasty says that people observed together festivals such us the birthday
of Christ and his rebirth. The same was observed by Muslims who celebrated
Jewish and Buddhist religious events.
Khubilai said, “These four holy saints are being deeply revered by the people
in any corner of the world”.
According
to historians the Mongols were tolerant of the religious faiths of any
nationality that helped them to rule the country they dominated. On the other
hand, it would be wrong to say the Mongol Khaans and nobles, who learned much
by traversing half of the world, were the people to discriminate against other
beliefs.
It is probable that the wise and sound policy
of the Mongol KHaans and high-ranking nobles of the time was the secret to the successful conquering of half
the world.
Humankind
does not know of a peaceful co-existence of deferent religions under one roof
as in the period of the Great Mongol Empire of the 13th century. The
polish scientist V.Kotwich concludes that “ in the 13th
century the Mongols initiated world peace,” bringing the religious policy of
the Mongol Khaans to light is a historical fact.” Another historical example is
that “ Macro Polo benefited from the peace brought by the Mongols to travel
safety from Venice through Asia and back. Polo’s adventure became an
inspiration for the later explorations of European explorers” (World History,
Volume I. 4th edition. 1996, page 170).
The spread of Buddhism in Mongolia
The Mongols from early times were interacting with Buddhists
culturally and spiritually. There is evidence that Buddhist religion developed
during the Hun period, the earliest ancestors of the Mongols. According to
historical sources, the main object of sacrifice of the population inhabiting
the southwest territories of the Hunnu Empire was a 3 meter tall Golden Buddha.
In the following period of the Hun state Buddhism played as significant role
for the nomads of Mongolia. “We’ll accumulate merits by performing good deeds
and will make them grow by performing meritorious acts”, ordered the leader Mu
Yin of the Sumbe Mu Yin banner of the Mongol nation. According to history, the
Nyrun (4th -6th century )
state of the Mongolian nation made Buddhism into the state religion.
A
Lama by the name of Dharmapria who settled in the western areas of present day
Gansu, was promoted in 420 to teacher of the Nyrun state Buddhism was
widespread in Mongolia starting from the middle of the Turkish Khanate, founded
after the Nyrun state, aand existing up to the end of Uighur state ( 9th-11th
century ). The Kidans, before their own state emerged, set up the first
Buddhist monastery in 902.
Chinggis
Khaan, after the foundation of a united Mongols empire, wrote in a letter to
Tibetan Lama Sajiin Khambo in1206: “Through I want t invite you, my state
affairs are not finished yet. Pray for me”. In one of his following letters,
Chinggis Khaan exempted the superior of the Tibetan religion from tax. Some of Chinggis Khaan’s close associate
ministers were conversant in Buddhist religious teachings. Encouraging the
Buddhist religion, Ugedei Khaan ( 1229-1241 )
began to erect a big Buddhist suburgan
in Kharakhorum which later, in 1256 was completed during the time of
Munkh Khaan’s rule. Buddhism flourished during the time of the Mongolian Yuan
dynasty. The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Khubilai Khan (1215-1294) , pursuing
the state policy of the Mongol Khaan’s who revered and supported Buddhism, invented Pagva Lama Lodoijaltsan of
Tibetan Sajii sect to his palace in 1260 to write his books, and promoted him
to the post of head lama of Yuan state in Shand city, and handed him the seal
of state teacher. The successors of Khubilai welcomed the head lamas, publicists of the Buddhist
ideology and granted them the titles of state teachers. During the second half
of the 16th century , with the help and support of Mongolian
statesmen, religious scholars and Tibetan religious leaders, Buddhism was
revived in Mongolia for the third time. Undur Gegeen Zanabazar of Khalkh, Zaya
Pandida Luvsanperenlei, Zaya Pandida Namkhaijamts Englightened Lama choizad ,
Neij Toi , Pandida Ayush gun of Huhhot, Altan Khan of Tumen, Abtai Sain Khan of
Khalkh, Ligden , Galdan Boshigt khan of Oirad, Tumen Sain Noyon Khan and many
other nobilities played a significant role in the development of Buddhism in
Mongolia. For example, Altan khan of Tumed (1507-1589) invented the Tibetan
lama , Yondonjamts, to Mongolia and bestowed on him the distinguished title of
Ochirdari Dalai Lama, and the prestigious title of Dalai Lama thus emerged ,
Since then , some Mongol khans encouraged Buddhism and strove to use Buddhism
in the reunion of their disintegrated nation with the help of spiritual
devotion. Ligden Khutagt Khaan (1592-1634) decreed to translate the Ganjuur and
Danjuur shashtri sutra into the Mongolian Language in 1628-1629. Thirty-five
scholarly saints led by Gungaa Odser participated in performing this work From
this time Mongols actively participated in spreading Buddhism. Along with the translation and explanation of
works created by Indian and Tibetan scholars, the learned saint lames of Khalha and Oirat in particular, began to
write books on religious philosophy. Considerable amount of works on Buddhist
philosophy composed by such renowned religious saint as Nagarjuna, Asanga,
Vasuvandu, Dignaga, Dharmakirta and Dharmottara were translated into the
Mongolian language, thus serving as valuable research materials. Mongols also
wrote many religious books in the Tiibetan language.
The
number of people who wrote books in the Tibetan language numbered more than
200, and the books they composed reached several hundred. Buddhist culture has
been studied in perfect order from the second half of the 17th
century and from the foundation of Ikh Huree. Ikh Huree was one of the biggest
cultural centers for many hundred years not only for Mongolian Buddhists but
for Buddhists around the world. The religious school of Gandan, established in
1739, produced highly educated and celebrated lamas of the time, who were
renowned not only in Mongolian but in the Orient as well. There were thousand
of monasteries, temples, Buddhist prayer places and libraries. Buddhist temples
and monasteries were the places of cultural and intellectual life in Mongolian
society.
Buddhist
religious knowledge and intellectual development in Mongolia, until the end of
the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, was amongst the best in the world.
A great number of sages and saints, who specialized and penetrated into the
philosophic depth of Buddhist religious doctrines and professionals in Buddhism, were born in Mongolia.
Buddhism
in that particular time performed the role of an official ideology, which
significantly strengthened Mongolian relations with other oriental countries.
Buddhism gradually replaced indigenous shaman traditions and rituals, by
introducing the cultural achievement of India and Tibet into the wild steppe
lands and playing a decisive role in developing culture and civilization. The
best Buddhist masterpieces of art are kept in the Gandan monastery, and in
other temples, monasteries and museums of Mongolia Canons and doctrines of the
Buddhist philosophy, which are dispersed throughout the country deeply impacted
Mongolian culture, the intellect of the Mongolian people, its traditions and
customs, and became the religion of the
Mongolian nation.
Shamanist faith
The
worship of wild animals by ancient Mongols was lost in medieval times and
replaced by the worship of an Eternal
Heaven, when an abstract understanding of heaven appeared. In order words, the
understanding that there exist a god who supports the world deeply penetrated
into the minds of people, thus creating an earth into which the shamanist faith
could be born.
Eternal
sky is supreme and receives the utmost devotion from the Mongolian shamans. The
sky is male, and earth female. The eternal sky was thought to be a supreme
universe containing many heavens of good and bad nature. The Asar Heaven is
made out of a total of 99 heavens, of which 55b are of western direction, and
are considered to be good for man and always perform good deeds. The 44 heavens
of east direction have been considered as furious and arrogant and as
performers of bad deeds. The shamans believe that once these heavens were
united under the ruler of a powerful Asura. When Asura died the heavens divided
into two hostile sides. The leader among the western heavens was Khan Khurmast
and that of the eastern heavens was Altaa Ulaanbaatar Tenger.
The
understanding of the heavens of the heavens was vast, for every heaven was
closely associated with a certain natural phenomena or human life or ruled over
a specific destiny and fate . this is similar to Grecian ideology, believing in
Gods like Zeus. For example: the Hail Heaven ruled the thunderstorm, White
Heaven of Zad ruled rain, Red Fire Heaven ruled drought and zud, the Black
Daughter Heaven cared for humans and young animals, the White Old Man cared for
cattle and livestock, the Manakhan Heaven protected hunting and trophies, while
the Daivan Blue Heaven inspired artisans and craft science.
The
spiritual and magical power of shamanism different in its magnificence. The
male and female shamans entered into a
trance, summoning the heavens and acting as a mediator between people and sky.
The male shaman was called Zairan, and female shaman Udgan. Black shamans who
contacted bad spirits and reeked havoc while white shamans contacted good
spirits and performed good deeds.
From
ancient times, the Mongols considered shamans as possessors of an extraordinary
spiritual power. The Mongol shamans of early years were said to have the power
to call for rain from cloudless skies, cause thunderstorms, make rivers flow in
opposite direction, to overcome difficulties in time and space and predict the
future. All ancient Mongolian banners follow shamanism. Modun Khaan of Hun, the
first Mongolian state used to bow to the early morning sun and late night moon.
There were many shamanist monasteries and temples on the territory of the Hun state. The Hun’s Khaan
was deeply respected and called “ Tenger Huvuun” (Son of heaven ). During the
state ceremonial ritual shamanistic prayers were used, which indicated that
there might be a move towards shamanism as a state religion.
Through
the worshipping of the sun, moon, earth, rivers, lakes, elders and the
sacrificing of sheep and cattle, the Sumbe also followed shamanism. The Toba
tribe conducted an offering ceremony and placed 7 or 49 wooden men relating to
shamanist rituals as offerings. The Jujans, like the Mongolian tribes, were
followers of shamanism. The shamans, male and female alike, played a
significant role in Jujan Khan’s palace. The Tureg tribe also believed in
shamanism, and conducted shamanistic rituals, worshipped the blue skies and the
earth. The Kirghizs, gathered together on the steppe, performed shamanistic
rituals and worshipped the gods of land and water.
Uigars
also worshipped sky and land and followed shamanism. They conducted offering to
the mountains and built ovoos. During the Great Mongols Empire the shamanist
religion was respected as a state religion . When the Great Bogd Chinggis Khaan
united the Mongol tribes under one roof, one of his close associates was a
shaman named Dev Tenger. The shaman was an important and fortunate person who
was included in state ceremonies or when warriors were sent to a battlefield.
Performing an offering to an ovoo (sacred monument), and predicting the future
were the most popular forms of shamanist traditions in Mongolia. It’s very
common in rural regions of Mongolia to perform shamanist ritual to mountains
and water asking for rain or conducting the Naadam feast. Fortune telling from a shoulder-bone of a
sheep has become a tradition. In conclusion from all this it could be said that
rituals of the shamanist religion played a dominant role in the consciousness
of the ancient Mongols. Literature related to shamanism, and shamanist rituals
to evoke spirits greatly influenced the intellectual culture of the Mongols.
Ex-1 . To answer the question
1. When and where was the first Mongolian Buddhist monastery
built?
2. How many monasteries and temples were there in Mongolia
before 1921?
3. What is the Shamanism?
4. What is the ancient Mongolian faith?
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