Interp - 5

To translate into Mogolia

1.      Mongolian national holiday

In Mongolia, the national sports festival is called naadam- is a traditional display of strength, horsemanship, and marksmanship. Wrestling, archery and horseracing are he Three Main Games of Men, which are rooted in the mists of antiquity and continue to be very popular among the Mongols today. In 12^th – 13^th century, military festivals were widespread, at which men tried their strength and their steed’s agility. From the 17^th century onwards, Naadam contest were held regularly during religious holidays. Since 1922, they have been held on he anniversary of the people’s revolution. The opening ceremony of Naadam is very bright and plenty of locals as well as visitors attend. Wrestling is the most national and popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Games of Men. Historians claim that Mongol style wrestling originated from some seven thousand years ago. The technique and ritual of Mongolian wrestling is distinctly national. There are no weight categories or age limits in Mongolian national wrestling. The wrestlers wear heavy boots, a very small tight-fitting loincloth, a pair of sleeves which meet across the back of the shoulders, resembling a tiny vestige of a jacket, and a pointed cap of velvet. The contestants some out on the field leaping and dancing, flapping their arms in limitation of an eagle. Each wrestler has his attendant herald. The aim of the sport is to knock your opponent off balance and throw him down, making him touch the ground with his elbow and knee. The loser walks under the raised arms of the winner in a sign of respect, and unties his vest, after which the victor, again leaping and dancing, takes a turn round the flag in the center of the field. The victor is wawrded symbolic prizes-biscuits and aaruul, or dried curds, once he has tasted these, he offers them to his second and to spectators. Traditionally either one thousand and twenty-four or five hundred and twelve wrestlers participate in the contest. Today the latter number usually takes pan. At the Republican Naadam, nine rounds are held. Those, who lose in one round, are eliminated from further rounds. A wrestler who beats five opponents in a row is awarded the title of “Republican Falcon” one who wins seven round is given the title of “Elephant”. A wrestler becomes champion by winning nine round and is given the title of “Lion” and if he wins two years in row, he is called “Giant”. If a wrestler becomes a third-time champion at the Naadam, the attribute “Nation wide” is added to his title, and the fourth time, he is styled “Invincible”. The winner of the tournament receive honorary titles and are also awarded various souvenirs. But for them, the main award is the truly nation-wide popularity and fame that they gain. Horseracing is a normal part of the Naadam. This sport is also centuries old, dating back to he Bronze Age. The horses for the Naadam races are selected a month before the big day. They are then taken to an adequate pasture separate from the herd and trained. Race horse are divide into several age groups: two, four and five years old; over five years; and stallions. The riders are aged from 5 to 12. Mongolian children of these ages are good riders, as both boys and girls have been riding since infancy. As the popular saying goes, “The nomad is born in the saddle”. Small saddles are made out them. They are not only superb riders, but also skillful tacticians. They know how to hold the horse back so it has enough strength to last the entire distance of the race. Competitions are not held on special racetracks, but right across the steppe, where riders are confronted with various obstacles such as river, ravines and hills. The distance varies according to the ages of the horses, between 15 and 35 km. the riders are dressed in bright, colorful and comfortable clothes. On their backs are various symbolic pictures. Symbolic ornaments and designs also embellish the horse cloth. The most exciting moments are the start and he finish. Before the beginning of the  contest the young horsemen ride round the starting point  three times yelling the  ancient call  Giingol a kind of war cry. When all the  horses step behind the boundary line the starting command is  given and the  riders surge forward setting in motion the  long-awaited race. The winning riders do a full circuit of the stadium each accompanied by a herald. The winning horse receives the honorary title Forehead of ten Thousand Race Horses and the five runners-up are awarded with medals. They are popularly called the Airgiin Five. In accordance with  tradition the riders on the winning  horses do three laps of honor then ride up to the grandstand and each child is offered a large bowl of airag-fermented mare`s milk-from which he drinks and then pours some on the  rump of his horse The herald in turn  chants in poem-from the virtues of the horse its rider and owner But there is also an interesting tradition in connection  with the losers Honor and praise of the winners of the race is to the race is to be expected but the losers are also rewarded and honored After the awards ceremony for the victors the racer who came in the last is is led up to the main stand with his young rider. The loser`s face shows vexation and shame But the spectators do not make fun of him confidence in himself The ode encourages him  with  words expressing faith in his  future success Archery-Ample information  about archery can  be found in literary  and historical documents of the 13^th  century and even before It is an ancient sport of the Mongolians  which  can be traced back as 300-200 BC According to historians archery contest began in the 11^th century  The Mongols use a compound bow built up of layers of  horn sinew bark and wood when unstrung it is not straight but curved. Archery is more archaic and ritualistic than other sports All archers adopt the same stance and posture. The target  consists of a row several meters across of small woven leather ring some painted red which  are laid out laterally on the ground The openings face  upwards providing a challenging exercise in trajectory for the archers In olden times women did not participate in the contest but in the last few decades they have started to do so. The  distance is about  75m for men and 60m for women Men shoot about 40arrows and must  score not less than 15 points and women shoot 20arrows and must score at least 13 points using the same bow as  the men. When the arrow hits the target a group of people standing near the target action as judges raises the cry uukhai and makes  sings with their hands to indicate the result. The one who scores the most point is the winner and the title of mergen (or Supermarksman)os bestowed on him or her There are several features  for this Naadam holiday Four wrestlers of the final round will compete each other according to given time. If the limit of the given times is exceeded above 30 minutes those will wrestle by choosing grip.The distance of horseracing is lengthened by approximately two km. There are normally six categories of horse racing depending on the age of the horses: for example a two- year-old  horse called  a  daaga will race for 12 km a three-year- old  horse “shudlen”-for 15km, and six a four- year-old horse “hyazaalan” – for 20 km and six- and seven- year-old “azraga” and “ikh nas” horses go for up to 30km.

Ex -1. To write about Naadam.

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Interp - 4

1.      Ger

The Mongolian Ger is ideally suited to the country’s extremes of climate and the people’s nomadic way of life. It is a multipurpose dwelling that can be easily collapsed, transported to another place and put up again fully preserving its original shape. Being constantly on the move with herds of animals or being on military campaigns compelled Mongols to build gers on carts. Old books contain pictures of such gers, temporary abodes in which families of thereof four could spend the night or find shelter. After some time the use of carts stopped because they were clumsy and the gers could not be hauled over long distances as there was the danger of getting stuck in the mud somewhere or tipping over. The ger has two key components-the wooden framework and the felt cover. The wooden parts are the walls, the long poles, the round smoke escape and its support. One wall consists of 10-15 wooden poles, each about 1.5 m high, bound with together in a away making it possible to fold it for transportation and then unfold like an accordion.

The unfolded walls are connected to form a circle. The long poles are fastened to the upper part of the walls, with the other end passed through the round support at the top of the ger, the only window and smoke escape in the ger. Two posts prop up the round support. All this forms are the wooden framework of the ger, which resembles an open umbrella. Two layers of felt are then laid on the roof and on the walls and tied down with hair rope. The top of the ger has felt flap that can be drawn over the roof when the weather is bad number of walls and poles determines the size of the ger. Almost herders gers have five walls, which make a living area of 16-18 sq.m. larger gers can have up to 12 walls. In the center of the ger is hearth, which has a special meaning of the Mongols. Apart from its utilitarian purpose, the hearth symbolizes ties with ancestors. There are several customs associated with hearth. Desecration of the hearth is a sin and insult to the master of the house. The hearth is mounted on three stones, which symbolize the host, the hostess and the daughter-in-law. The hearth is the center ger and divides the ger space into three conventional areas-the male and female quarters and the khoimor. The male quarters are on the western side. Here the host keeps the saddle, the horse bridle and the koumiss bag. The female quarters are on the eastern side where she keeps the kitchen ware and appliances. Accordingly, a man entering the ger goes straight to the western part and a woman to the eastern part. It is believed that the male quarters are under the protection of heaven and the sun patronizes the female quarters. The most honored place is the khoimor by northern wall, opposite the door. Here, they keep objects dear to the master of the house, his weapons, his Morin Khuur and the host’s horse bridle. Pieces of furniture usually two wooden chests, painted bright orange, are also placed in the khoimor. Framed photographs of the host’s family and friends are put on the chests for everyone to see. If the host has some governmental award, he is sure to hand it in the khoimor. When guests visit, the  hosts usually sit on the eastern side of  the khoimor  and the  guests on the western side. The hostess’ place is by the hearth and the children are supposed to sit her but closer to the door. The bed of the host and hostess is in the female quarters: those for guests are on the opposite side. The children are put to sleep parents’ feet. There are many philosophical ideas on the ger, its parts and functions. The smoke escape is the only opening through which light penetrates the ger. An old legend has it that it was through such a hole that a far-haired man got into the ger of Alangua, the Mongols’ ancestral mother, and begot three sons. In olden days people could tell time by the sun’s rays falling on the cross-pieces of the smoke escape on the poles. The Mongols divided the into twelve hour and each hour into twelve minutes, which they called by the name of the lunar calendar animals. A hair rope, chagtaga, is fastened to the smoke escape from which a weight establishing the ger is suspended during strong winds. In new gers, they fasten a khadag to it, a piece of blue silk in which a handful of grain is wrapped. The symbolism of this ritual can be summed up like this “may happiness multiply in this new ger like grains of corn and may life be pure and beautiful here,” the ger supports ensure stability and that is probably why tradition forbids touching, let alone learning against them. Moreover, they symbolize a link with Heaven, with the past-present-future axis supposedly passing through them. In winter the hearth heats the ger and also serves as a stove for cooking. In wooded areas, the hearth is stocked with firewood while in the desert and steppe, dry dung is used. The ger warms up quickly and holds in the heat. In the summer heat the lower part of the felt cover is raised to let in fresh air. The ger,round and squat, can with stand harsh winds while the quick drying felt is good protection against the rain and snow. In the towns and urban-type settlements, gers are being ousted by modern well-built housing. Young Mongols prefer to live in comfortable flats. In summer, however, urban dwellers often spend their vacation in gers, leaving the urban conveniences for a short while to enjoy the unmatched comfort of the ger.

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Interp - 3

To translate and answer the question.

1.      Clothing

The deel is the Mongol`s traditional garment worn on both workdays and special days. It is a long loose gown cut in one piece with the sleeves it has a high collar and widely overlap at the front. The deel is girdled with a sash. Each ethnic group living in Mongolia has its own deel distinguished by cut, color and trimming. The distinctions go unnoticed by foreigner, yet for the Mongols they are obvious. Before the revolution, all social strata in Mongolia had their own manner of dressing. Livestock breeders, for example, wore plain deels, which served them both summer and winter. The priests wore yellow deels with a cape orkhimj, thrown over it. Secular feudeal lords put on smart hats and silk waistcoat. Today, towns people tend to wear European-style clothes. In the countryside, however, the modern attire is inconvenient and impractical. The deel has several uses-as a coat, as a blanket, and as means of concealing yourself when going to the toilet on the open steppe. In the cities, as people start aging, especially the women, begin to appreciate the advantages of the deel and wear it, trying to excel each other in the choice of fabric, as well as in the elegance of the cut and originality of the trimmings. Commonly there are three varieties of deel, each for a particular season. The first, the dan deel is very much like a dress, a frock cut in one piece from plain cloth without padding. Rural women wear dan deel all year around. In cold weather they put on warm clothes over them. Terleg is a slightly padded deel. And finally the winter deel is padded with sheepskin or cotton wool. Deel for men and women are of the same cut. The difference is that male deels are wider and of more demure colors. The pattern is simple enough. The sleeves are cut together with the gown and there are only a few minor details. More over the tailor does not have to worry about the precise length and width. Measurements are usually made using the hand rather than a tape measure. They “ too” is the distance between the thumb and the middle finger, the “soom” the distance between thumb and the forefinger and the “khuruu” the of the forefinger. The deel for everyday wear is grey, brown or some other dark color, while the holiday deel is a bright blue,green or claret silk with a silk sash of contrasting color several meters long. The sash is not simply an adornment. It also serves as a soft corset facilitating long rides on horseback. In days gone by, men would attach a sheathed knife, a tobacco pouch, a flint and a pipe-cleaning hook to the belt. Characteristically, the Mongol always hid his pipe in his boots. The deel collar, breasts and sleeves are trimmed with leather and color brocade tape, which can be wide or narrow depending on the wearer’s taste. The deel buttons, if they are not commercially produced from decorative stones or silver, are narrow strips of cloth tied into intricate knots. Traditional deels are normally seen now only at concerts or official occasions. In addition to the deel is the jacket known as a khurim. In cold weather it is put on over the deel. The gutal is the high boot made from unbending leather and lined with fine and felt. They are decorated with different designs. Both the left and right are traditionally the same shape and were worn with thick socks made from quilted cloth. Traditional boots are without heels and have turned up toes. Mongolian hats are still very much the normal attire in the countryside. The traditional hat is a hat for all seasons trimmed with fur, fox fur most cases. The sides of the hat can be tied down to keep the ears warm or tied on top in the warmer periods. The hats are worn by both men and by women, in the past, headgear was worn to show social status. The design is also symbolic. The pointed top of the hat represents Mount Sumber, the legendary land of the Mongol forefathers. The khot on the top represents the unity of the nation. Red ribbons are the sun’s rays and the broad brim represents the country’s inaccessibility. Because of the different ethinc groups in Mongolia, there are distinctions in the way they all dress. Therefore it is estimated that between them all, there are about 400 different types of garments, 20 boots, 10 sashes and 20 types of hats.

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Interp - 2

To translate into Mongolia

1.      Religion of great Mongol Empire 

The most interesting period in the religious attitudes of the Mongols was the period when Chinggis Khaan founded the Great Mongol Empire. Chinggis Khaan and his successors idolized shamanism and holy spirits. The shamans, who worshipped the Eternal Blue Sky, were never banned by other religious denominations.

            Kharakhorum, the capital of the greatest cultural,  religious and political centers of its time in the world. Buddhists, Christians, Nestorians, Muslims and Confucians co-exited by setting up their own temples and monasteries. History tells as that the monasteries and temples had their own governing centers and head authorities.

            In Kharakhorum, along whit shamanism, there was a Buddhist lamasery, two mosques, one Christian church and 12 temples of other religions. Beginning with the Great Bogd Chinggis, the Mongolian Khaans and nobles never discriminated against the religious denominations of conquered nations and let them co-exist on an equal footing.

            Khubilai Khaan celebrated the holy festivals of various religions. The history of the Yuan dynasty says that people observed together festivals such us the birthday of Christ and his rebirth. The same was observed by Muslims who celebrated Jewish and Buddhist  religious events. Khubilai said, “These four holy saints are being deeply revered by the people in any corner of the world”.

            According to historians the Mongols were tolerant of the religious faiths of any nationality that helped them to rule the country they dominated. On the other hand, it would be wrong to say the Mongol Khaans and nobles, who learned much by traversing half of the world, were the people to discriminate against other beliefs.

 It is probable that the wise and sound policy of the Mongol KHaans and high-ranking nobles of the time was the  secret to the successful conquering of half the world.

            Humankind does not know of a peaceful co-existence of deferent religions under one roof as in the period of the Great Mongol Empire of the 13^th century. The polish  scientist V.Kotwich  concludes that “ in the 13^th century the Mongols initiated world peace,” bringing the religious policy of the Mongol Khaans to light is a historical fact.” Another historical example is that “ Macro Polo benefited from the peace brought by the Mongols to travel safety from Venice through Asia and back. Polo’s adventure became an inspiration for the later explorations of European explorers” (World History, Volume I. 4^th edition. 1996, page 170).

The spread of Buddhism in Mongolia

            The Mongols from early times were interacting with Buddhists culturally and spiritually. There is evidence that Buddhist religion developed during the Hun period, the earliest ancestors of the Mongols. According to historical sources, the main object of sacrifice of the population inhabiting the southwest territories of the Hunnu Empire was a 3 meter tall Golden Buddha. In the following period of the Hun state Buddhism played as significant role for the nomads of Mongolia. “We’ll accumulate merits by performing good deeds and will make them grow by performing meritorious acts”, ordered the leader Mu Yin of the Sumbe Mu Yin banner of the Mongol nation. According to history, the Nyrun (4^th -6^th century )  state of the Mongolian nation made Buddhism into the state religion.

            A Lama by the name of Dharmapria who settled in the western areas of present day Gansu, was promoted in 420 to teacher of the Nyrun state Buddhism was widespread in Mongolia starting from the middle of the Turkish Khanate, founded after the Nyrun state, aand existing up to the end of Uighur state ( 9^th-11^th century ). The Kidans, before their own state emerged, set up the first Buddhist monastery in 902.

            Chinggis Khaan, after the foundation of a united Mongols empire, wrote in a letter to Tibetan Lama Sajiin Khambo in1206: “Through I want t invite you, my state affairs are not finished yet. Pray for me”. In one of his following letters, Chinggis Khaan exempted the superior of the Tibetan religion from tax.  Some of Chinggis Khaan’s close associate ministers were conversant in Buddhist religious teachings. Encouraging the Buddhist religion, Ugedei Khaan ( 1229-1241 )  began to erect a big Buddhist suburgan  in Kharakhorum which later, in 1256 was completed during the time of Munkh Khaan’s rule. Buddhism flourished during the time of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Khubilai Khan (1215-1294) , pursuing the state policy of the Mongol Khaan’s who revered and supported  Buddhism, invented Pagva Lama Lodoijaltsan of Tibetan Sajii sect to his palace in 1260 to write his books, and promoted him to the post of head lama of Yuan state in Shand city, and handed him the seal of state teacher. The successors of Khubilai welcomed the  head lamas, publicists of the Buddhist ideology and granted them the titles of state teachers. During the second half of the 16^th century , with the help and support of Mongolian statesmen, religious scholars and Tibetan religious leaders, Buddhism was revived in Mongolia for the third time. Undur Gegeen Zanabazar of Khalkh, Zaya Pandida Luvsanperenlei, Zaya Pandida Namkhaijamts Englightened Lama choizad , Neij Toi , Pandida Ayush gun of Huhhot, Altan Khan of Tumen, Abtai Sain Khan of Khalkh, Ligden , Galdan Boshigt khan of Oirad, Tumen Sain Noyon Khan and many other nobilities played a significant role in the development of Buddhism in Mongolia. For example, Altan khan of Tumed (1507-1589) invented the Tibetan lama , Yondonjamts, to Mongolia and bestowed on him the distinguished title of Ochirdari Dalai Lama, and the prestigious title of Dalai Lama thus emerged , Since then , some Mongol khans encouraged Buddhism and strove to use Buddhism in the reunion of their disintegrated nation with the help of spiritual devotion. Ligden Khutagt Khaan (1592-1634) decreed to translate the Ganjuur and Danjuur shashtri sutra into the Mongolian Language in 1628-1629. Thirty-five scholarly saints led by Gungaa Odser participated in performing this work From this time Mongols actively participated in spreading Buddhism.  Along with the translation and explanation of works created by Indian and Tibetan scholars, the learned saint lames of  Khalha and Oirat in particular, began to write books on religious philosophy. Considerable amount of works on Buddhist philosophy composed by such renowned religious saint as Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasuvandu, Dignaga, Dharmakirta and Dharmottara were translated into the Mongolian language, thus serving as valuable research materials. Mongols also wrote many religious books in the Tiibetan language.

            The number of people who wrote books in the Tibetan language numbered more than 200, and the books they composed reached several hundred. Buddhist culture has been studied in perfect order from the second half of the 17^th century and from the foundation of Ikh Huree. Ikh Huree was one of the biggest cultural centers for many hundred years not only for Mongolian Buddhists but for Buddhists around the world. The religious school of Gandan, established in 1739, produced highly educated and celebrated lamas of the time, who were renowned not only in Mongolian but in the Orient as well. There were thousand of monasteries, temples, Buddhist prayer places and libraries. Buddhist temples and monasteries were the places of cultural and intellectual life in Mongolian society.

            Buddhist religious knowledge and intellectual development in Mongolia, until the end of the 19^th and the beginning of the 20^th  centuries, was amongst the best in the world. A great number of sages and saints, who specialized and penetrated into the philosophic depth of Buddhist religious doctrines and professionals  in Buddhism, were born in Mongolia.

            Buddhism in that particular time performed the role of an official ideology, which significantly strengthened Mongolian relations with other oriental countries. Buddhism gradually replaced indigenous shaman traditions and rituals, by introducing the cultural achievement of India and Tibet into the wild steppe lands and playing a decisive role in developing culture and civilization. The best Buddhist masterpieces of art are kept in the Gandan monastery, and in other temples, monasteries and museums of Mongolia Canons and doctrines of the Buddhist philosophy, which are dispersed throughout the country deeply impacted Mongolian culture, the intellect of the Mongolian people, its traditions and customs, and became the religion of  the Mongolian nation.

Shamanist faith

            The worship of wild animals by ancient Mongols was lost in medieval times and replaced  by the worship of an Eternal Heaven, when an abstract understanding of heaven appeared. In order words, the understanding that there exist a god who supports the world deeply penetrated into the minds of people, thus creating an earth into which the shamanist faith could be born.

            Eternal sky is supreme and receives the utmost devotion from the Mongolian shamans. The sky is male, and earth female. The eternal sky was thought to be a supreme universe containing many heavens of good and bad nature. The Asar Heaven is made out of a total of 99 heavens, of which 55b are of western direction, and are considered to be good for man and always perform good deeds. The 44 heavens of east direction have been considered as furious and arrogant and as performers of bad deeds. The shamans believe that once these heavens were united under the ruler of a powerful Asura. When Asura died the heavens divided into two hostile sides. The leader among the western heavens was Khan Khurmast and that of the eastern heavens was Altaa Ulaanbaatar Tenger.

            The understanding of the heavens of the heavens was vast, for every heaven was closely associated with a certain natural phenomena or human life or ruled over a specific destiny and fate . this is similar to Grecian ideology, believing in Gods like Zeus. For example: the Hail Heaven ruled the thunderstorm, White Heaven of Zad ruled rain, Red Fire Heaven ruled drought and zud, the Black Daughter Heaven cared for humans and young animals, the White Old Man cared for cattle and livestock, the Manakhan Heaven protected hunting and trophies, while the Daivan Blue Heaven inspired artisans and craft science.

            The spiritual and magical power of shamanism different in its magnificence. The male and female shamans  entered into a trance, summoning the heavens and acting as a mediator between people and sky. The male shaman was called Zairan, and female shaman Udgan. Black shamans who contacted bad spirits and reeked havoc while white shamans contacted good spirits and performed good deeds.

            From ancient times, the Mongols considered shamans as possessors of an extraordinary spiritual power. The Mongol shamans of early years were said to have the power to call for rain from cloudless skies, cause thunderstorms, make rivers flow in opposite direction, to overcome difficulties in time and space and predict the future. All ancient Mongolian banners follow shamanism. Modun Khaan of Hun, the first Mongolian state used to bow to the early morning sun and late night moon. There were many shamanist monasteries and temples on the  territory of the Hun state. The Hun’s Khaan was deeply respected and called “ Tenger Huvuun” (Son of heaven ). During the state ceremonial ritual shamanistic prayers were used, which indicated that there might be a move towards shamanism as a state religion.

            Through the worshipping of the sun, moon, earth, rivers, lakes, elders and the sacrificing of sheep and cattle, the Sumbe also followed shamanism. The Toba tribe conducted an offering ceremony and placed 7 or 49 wooden men relating to shamanist rituals as offerings. The Jujans, like the Mongolian tribes, were followers of shamanism. The shamans, male and female alike, played a significant role in Jujan Khan’s palace. The Tureg tribe also believed in shamanism, and conducted shamanistic rituals, worshipped the blue skies and the earth. The Kirghizs, gathered together on the steppe, performed shamanistic rituals and worshipped the gods of land and water.

            Uigars also worshipped sky and land and followed shamanism. They conducted offering to the mountains and built ovoos. During the Great Mongols Empire the shamanist religion was respected as a state religion . When the Great Bogd Chinggis Khaan united the Mongol tribes under one roof, one of his close associates was a shaman named Dev Tenger. The shaman was an important and fortunate person who was included in state ceremonies or when warriors were sent to a battlefield. Performing an offering to an ovoo (sacred monument), and predicting the future were the most popular forms of shamanist traditions in Mongolia. It’s very common in rural regions of Mongolia to perform shamanist ritual to mountains and water asking for rain or conducting the Naadam feast.  Fortune telling from a shoulder-bone of a sheep has become a tradition. In conclusion from all this it could be said that rituals of the shamanist religion played a dominant role in the consciousness of the ancient Mongols. Literature related to shamanism, and shamanist rituals to evoke spirits greatly influenced the intellectual culture of the Mongols.

Ex-1 . To answer the question

1.    When and where was the first Mongolian Buddhist monastery built?

2.    How many monasteries and temples were there in Mongolia before 1921?

3.    What is the Shamanism?

4.    What is the ancient Mongolian faith?